Scurta istorie a tipografiei (partea 3)


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Masina Ditto, folosita de fandom-uri sf si benzi desenate pentru tiparirea fanzinelor

Masina Ditto, folosita de fandom-uri sf si benzi desenate pentru tiparirea fanzinelor

(1923) O masina duplicator “spirit” (masina “Ditto” cum i se spunea in Statele Unite, sau masina “Banda” in Regatul Unit al Marii Britanii) era o metoda de tiparit de volum mic folosita in mare parte de scoli si biserici. A fost deasemenea folosita de membrii fandom-urilor de science fiction si de fandomurile de benzi desenate pentru a produce fanzine (reviste de gen,  ilustrate sau/si cu povestiri scurte si articole).  Hartiile printate pe aceste masini erau cateodata numite foi “ditto” sau “ditto-uri”, in Statele Unite. Termenul “duplicator spirit” se refera la faptul ca alcoolul (numit si “spirit” in engleza) era o componenta principala a solventilor folositi ca si cerneala in aceste masini.  Sunt confundate cateodata cu mimeografele, care reprezinta de fapt o cu totul alta tehnologie.

Printer cu sublimare a vopselei : Samsung_SPP-2040

Printer cu sublimare a vopselei : Samsung_SPP-2040

(1957) Un printer cu sublimare a vopselei (sau dye-sub printer) este o imprimanta de computer care practica un proces de imprimare ce foloseste caldura pentru a transfera cerneala pe materialele unde se vrea imprimarea, ce pot fi hartie, tesatura sau plastic. Termenul de sublimare este folosit deoarece vopseaua trece din stare solida in stare gazoasa fara sa treaca prin starea lichida. Majoritatea imprimantelor cu sublimare a vopselei de pe piata, normale sau profesionale, sunt folosite de obicei pentru a imprima imagini fotografice.

Nota : nu incurcati aceste imprimante cu cele cu transfer de caldura, care folosesc cerneli speciale pentru a creea transferul de culoare,  putandu-se imprima si pe obiecte de poliester.

Majoritatea imprimantelor cu sublimare a vopselei folosesc culori CMYO (cyan, magenta, galben, overcoating) care difera de uzuala schema de culori CMYK, prin faptul ca negrul sau vopseaua neagra este eliminata in favoarea unei vopsele protectoare transparente. Acest strat “overcoating”, care are diverse nume depinzand de producator, este stocata pe panglica si este in fapt un strat subtire laminat care protejeaza imprimeul de decolorarea cu raze UV, aer si apa.

Masina Linotype_CRTronic_360, utilizata pentru fototiparit

Masina Linotype_CRTronic_360, utilizata pentru fototiparit

(1960) Fototiparirea era o metoda de tiparire ce folosea un proces fotografic pentru a genera coloane de text, pe o hartie fotografica, metoda ce a fost scoasa din uz o data cu popularitatea PC-ului si a softurilor pentru creat diverse publicatii, reviste si ziare. Se folosea o masina numita “photo type setter” care proiecta foarte rapid lumina printr-un film negativ al unui anumit caracter dintr-un font, apoi se folosea o lentila care marea sau micsora marimea caracterului pe film, iar apoi toate aceste filme erau colectate intr-un recipient in care nu intra lumina. Filmul apoi urma sa fie pus intr-un procesor, o masina care trata filmul intr-o baie chimica de cateva ori, de unde iesea gata pentru lipit.


Masina Berthold, utilizata pentru fototiparit

Masina Berthold, utilizata pentru fototiparit

Imprimanta Epson Wide_Carriage - 9 pin printer

Imprimanta Epson Wide_Carriage - 9 pin printer

(1964) O imprimanta matriceala este un tip de imprimanta de computer cu un cap care ruleaza inainte si inapoi, sau intr-o miscare sus-jos, pe o pagina, si tipareste prin impact, lovind o panglica muiata in cerneala pe hartie, fiind foarte apropiata de mecanismul unei masini de scris. Totusi, literele sunt formate din punctele unei matrici bi-dimensionale ale capetelor metalice si se pot astfel forma diverse grafice, simboluri si caractere. Deoarece tiparirea implica presiune mecanica, aceste imprimante pot crea copii simple sau/si copii indigo.Fiecare punct este produs de o tija metalica foarte subtire, numita si “fir” sau “ac”, care este impins in fata de puterea unui mic electromagnet. In partea panglicii cu cerneala si a hartiei este o mica placa (adeseori facuta dintr-o piatra pretioasa artificiala ca si un safir sau un rubin), gaurita,  pentru a ghida acele in directia optima. Partea care se misca a imprimantei se numeste cap de tiparire si de obicei, cand imprimanta este folosita ca si dispozitiv generic pentru printat text, tipareste o linie de text la un moment dat. Majoritatea imprimantelor matriceale au o singura linie verticala de “ace” pe capetele de tiparire; altele au cateva linii intretesute de “ace” pentru a mari densitatea de tiparire.

Aceste imprimante pot fi foarte durabile. In momentul cand se uzeaza, cauza de obicei este inflitrarea cernelei in placa din safir sau rubin ce ghideaza “acele”, permitand nisipului sa se adune; acest “nisip”, uzeaza gaurile perfect rotunde ale placii ce ghideaza “acele”, transformandu-le in ovale sau neregulate, facand ca acele sa aiba din ce in ce mai putina acuratete pe hartie, astfel deformand caracterele din ce in ce mai mult. Chiar si cu blocuri din tungsten sau ace de titan, imprimarea devine prea neclara pentru a fi citita.

Desi aproape toate imprimantele cu cerneala, termice si cu laser afiseaza puncte foarte apropiate pentru a forma caracterele, in loc de a afisa direct linii sau caractere, nu se obisnuieste sa fie numite imprimante matriceale.

Imprimanta laser : Hp laserjet 4200dtns

Imprimanta laser : Hp laserjet 4200dtns

(1969) O imprimanta laser este un tip comun de imprimanta de computer care produce foarte rapid text si grafica de inalta calitate pe hartie simpla. La fel ca si cu fotocopiatoarele digitale si imprimantele multifunctionale, imprimantele laser folosesc un proces xerografic, dar difera de fotocopiatoarele analogice prin aceea ca imaginea este produsa prin scanarea directa a unei raze LASER in fotoreceptorul imprimantei.

Imprimanta termica : Sharp CE-126P

Imprimanta termica : Sharp CE-126P

(1972) Imprimanta termala (sau imprimanta termala directa) produce o imagine prin incalzirea selectiva a unei hartii speciale numite hartie termocroma, cand hartia trece peste capul de tiparire termic. Invelisul hartiei se innegreste acolo unde hartia este incalzita, producand astfel o imagine. Imprimantele termale in 2 culori pot tipari negru si inca o culoare (adesea rosu) prin aplicarea a 2 temperaturi diferite asupra hartiei.O metoda apropiata de aceasta este imprimarea termica prin transfer ce foloseste o panglica sensibila la caldura in loc de hartie senzitiva.

Imprimanta cu jeturi de cerneala : Canon BJ 10v Lite

Imprimanta cu jeturi de cerneala : Canon BJ 10v Lite

(1976) O imprimanta cu jet de cerneala este un tip de imprimanta de computer care creaza o imagine digitala prin propulsarea picaturilor fine de cerneala pe hartie. Imprimantele cu jet de cerneala sunt cele mai cunoscute tipuri de imprimanta si incep de la modelele mici si ieftine pana la modelele mari, profesionale, care pot costa pana la cateva mii de dolari.Conceptul de tiparire cu jet de cerneala a originat in secolul al 19-lea, si tehnologia a fost dezvoltata masiv abia la inceputul anilor 1950. Incepand cu sfarsitul anilor 1970, imprimantele cu jet de cerneala care puteau reproduce imagini digitale generate de computere au fost dezvoltate, in principal, de Epson, Hewlett-Packard (HP) si Canon. Pe piata mondiala de consumatori de imprimante, principalii producatori sunt : Canon, HP, Epson si Lexmark, o parte componenta a IBM, care s-a separat in 1991.

Piata ce se dezvolta acum in jurul tehnicii “ink jet material deposition” foloseste tot tehnologii similare cu cele de jet de cerneala, dar foloseste capete de imprimare cu cristale piezoelectrice, care depoziteaza materiale direct pe substraturi.

(1986) Litografia stereoeste o tehnologie de manufacturare pentru producerea de modele, prototipuri si in unele cazuri, diverse parti ale unor modele mai complexe industriale.

Masina pentru litografie stereo Viper Pro SLA

Masina pentru litografie stereo Viper Pro SLA

(1993) Tiparirea digitala se refera la metode de tiparire de la o imagine digitala direct pe o varietate de medii. Se refera de obicei la procesul profesional de imprimare prin care diverse fisiere digitale provenind din zona “desktop publishing” si alte surse digitale sunt printate folosing formate si volume mari, cu laser sau jet de cerneala. Imprimarea digitala are un cost mai ridicat pe pagina decat metodele de imprimare offset traditionale, dar acest pret de obicei se compenseaza cu evitarea crearii de placi de printat (care se folosesc in offset). Aceasta metoda de tiparire este mult mai flexibila, deoarece permite modificari dupa ce s-a inceput sesiunea de imprimare, sau chiar modificari la fiecare imprimare (ale fisierelor digitale).
Flexografia, numita si imprimare pe suprafata, adesea abreviata “flexo“, este o metoda de imprimare foarte folosita pentru ambalare (etichete, benzi, pungi, cutii, bannere, etc). O imprimare flexo este obtinuta prin crearea unui master care oglindeste imaginea finala ca un relief 3D intr-un material din cauciuc sau polimer. O cantitate masurata de cerneala este depozitata pe suprafata cilindrului sau placii de imprimat. Suprafata de imprimare apoi se roteste, intrand in contact cu materialul, si se transfera cerneala. La inceput, imprimarea flexo era la inceput ca si calitate. Etichetele care se vroiau de calitate mare erau printate in mediul offset, pana recent. In ultimii ani, imprimarea flexo a avansat foarte mult si astfel si calitatea acesteia s-a imbunatatit considerabil. Cele mai mari avansuri au fost in zona placilor foto polimeri, incluzand imbunatatiri la materialul din care este facuta placa si la metoda de creare a placii – de obicei expunere fotografica urmata de gravura chimica, urmata de gravura directa laser.
Tiparirea prin semi tonuri reprezinta tehnica ce simuleaza imagini prin folosirea punctelor de diferite marimi. Aceasta metoda da si numele imaginilor care sunt reproduse prin acest process.
Ideea tiparirii in semi tonuri a originat de la William Fox Talbot. La inceputul anilor 1850, el a propus folosirea “ecranurilor sau voalurilor fotografice” in conexiune cu un proces de imprimare intaglio.Mai multe feluri de ecrane au fost propuse in timpul decadelor ce au urmat, dar primul proces de gravare foto prin semi-tonuri (half-tone) a fost inventat de canadienii George-Edouard Desbarats si William Leggo Jr. In octombrie 30, 1869, Desbarats a inceput sa publice Canadian Illustrated News care a devenit primul periodic din lume care sa foloseasca aceasta tehnica foto-mecanica, iar prima imagine half-tone (prin semi-tonuri de cerneala) a fost aceea a Altetei sale regale, Printului Artur, dupa o fotografie de Notman.Ambitiosi pentru a exploata o circulatie mult mai larga, Debarats si Leggo au mers la New York si au lansat New York Daily Graphic, in martie 1873, care a devenit prima revista ilustrata zilnica, din lume.

Prima metoda de succes comercial a fost patentata de Frederic Ives din Philadelphia in 1881. Dar desi el a gasit o metoda de a desface imaginea in puncte de marimi diferite, el nu a folosit un ecran. In 1882, germanul George Meisenbach a patentat un proces prin semi-tonuri in Anglia. Inventia sa a fost bazata pe ideea de dinainte a lui Berchtold and Swan. El a folosit ecrane cu linii care erau intoarse in timpul expunerii pentru a produce efectul de linii intretaiate. A fost primul care a obtinut un succes comercial cu semi-tonuri in relief.

Scanare si imprimare 3D, cu ajutorul computerului

Scanare si imprimare 3D, cu ajutorul computerului

(2003) Imprimarea 3D este o forma de tehnologie de manufacturare aditiva unde un obiect tridimensional este creat prin aplicarea succesiva de diverse straturi de material. Imprimantele 3D sunt in general mai rapide, mai accesibile si mai usor de folosit decat alte metode de manufacturare aditiva. Imprimantele 3D ofera dezvoltatorilor de produse abilitatea de a printa piese si subansamble facute din cateva materiale cu diferite proprietati mecanice si fizice, toate intr-un singur proces tehnologic. Tehnologiile avansate de imprimare 3D, pot crea modele ce pot deja servi ca prototipuri. Inca din 2003 s-a inregistrat o crestere destul de semnificativa in vanzarea imprimantelor 3D. Ca rezultat, pretul lor a continuat sa scada.  Tehnologia isi gaseste aplicatie in industriile de incaltaminte, bijuterii, design industrial, arhitectura, inginerie si constructii, industria auto, industria aerospatiala, medicala si dentara, educatie, GIS, inginerie civila etc.

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